Astronomy Literacy:

Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

In the 1990s, science education in the United States underwent dramatic reform prompted by the
book, Science for all Americans. Ultimately, the National Science Educational Standards were
developed. Today those standards are being replaced by completely new set of standards, the Next
Generation Science Standards (NGSS). To assist curriculum developers, classroom teachers and
other members of the K-12 educational community, the U. S. planetarium associations identified the
following set of essential astronomy concepts for a K-12 curriculum as well as justifications for
including astronomy in a well rounded curriculum.
Why Planetarium Educators are Well-Suited for Identifying
Astronomical Curriculum Content
Planetarium educators typically teach thousands of K-12 students each year. Frequently they serve
as resource master astronomy teachers for both their local and area school districts. They see
students at varying grade levels throughout their school careers. Due to these diverse roles,
planetarium educators have a unique perspective regarding the astronomy concepts appropriate for
K-12 students and the sequence in which these concepts should be taught.
Why Learn Astronomy?
The study of astronomy is an important experience which has far-reaching implications for many
curricular areas. “Astronomy literacy” implies not only knowledge and understanding of the Earth
and its interaction with other celestial objects, but also an understanding of the scientific processes
used to produce those concepts. Astronomy is a high interest subject which attracts a wide range of
students. The motivational nature of astronomy promotes science literacy, and astronomy learning
may encourage students to pursue future careers in science, technology, engineering, or math. A
successful astronomy and space-science curriculum ultimately strives to produce citizens who think
critically so that they can make responsible decisions about society’s role in caring for the planet on
which we live. Other reasons that the study of astronomy is important include:
• Nearly all life depends on the workings of our Sun. The production of energy by this
star makes life possible.
• Almost all of the atoms that we interact with daily (including those that are found within
our bodies) were created within the interiors of stars or by the Big Bang.
• Students can observe the effects of the Earth’s rotation and revolution, the motions of
our Moon, and gravitational effects of the Moon and Sun on our planet. In addition,
students can observe and explain why the Moon exhibits phases and why eclipses occur,
describe the motion of the planets relative to both the Earth and the Sun, and take note of
the star patterns in either a planetarium or outdoor setting with their eyes. Planetariums
provide unique opportunities to view basic sky phenomena without problems of light
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

pollution, weather, or extended time periods, as well as provide training for outdoor sky
viewing that does not require any specialized equipment.
• Our perspective on our place in the universe is constantly changing as we learn about
such things as the existence of extra-solar planets that orbit stars other than our Sun, dark
matter and dark energy. We recognize that new information prompts scientists to reexamine theories as both new discoveries are made and technology enables us to explore
new ideas.
• Realization that comets and asteroids have hit Earth in the past are concepts that
illustrate both the scientific methods and the need to understand more about our
universe. This understanding may save our species from a global catastrophe and
encourage the development of new technologies for human research and exploration.
• Astronomy permeates our lives in many different ways. Every culture has an
astronomical heritage. Astronomy is the forerunner of all of our sciences. Clock time,
calendar time, effects of the seasons, and effects of Earth’s place in space all impact our
lives on a daily basis. Without adequate astronomy education, it is likely that many
students (and adults) will develop misconceptions about the universe.
• Astronomy is an observational science with a long history. Science is based on the
scaffolding of knowledge:
1. achieved through insight from careful observations;
2. confirmed through evidence from tests and experiments;
3. refined by publication, dissemination, and replication by many individuals and
teams in many countries.
• The universe can be used as a laboratory to explore nature in ways we simply cannot do
on Earth.
• Astronomy is multidisciplinary in scope which illustrates the connectedness of the
sciences.
• Basic questions about the cosmos and its components help answer profound questions
about the origins of the universe and about life itself.
• The observational aspects of astronomy sharpen one’s ability to observe in all aspects of
our lives.
• Recording astronomical observations refines our ability to document and analyze events
around us.
• Astronomy is the science with the longest and most carefully documented history, so
studying it provides insight on how humankind learns, how a civilization’s collective
knowledge grows, changes, and improves as well as how to approach unsolved problems
in other fields, including technology.
The Value of the Planetarium
Observations are essential to astronomy. Planetarium lessons are invaluable for providing these
observational opportunities. The planetarium is a unique classroom environment which accurately
represents both the day and night sky at different times of day, month, and year from anywhere on
the Earth’s surface and beyond. The three-dimensional view that planetariums provide gives
students the feeling they are really outside. This immersive learning environment allows students to
grasp more about the Earth-based view of solar system bodies, stars, and galaxies than video,
computer animations, or textbook illustrations. In many planetariums, new technology extends
these observational possibilities allowing views from any position in space. This planetarium
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

experience helps students to better understand our place in space and how it relates to the larger
universe.
The component of observation, so critical to astronomy learning, can be conducted efficiently in a
planetarium. Long spans of time can be simulated in a few moments. For example, in just minutes
students can view a day of the Sun’s apparent motion, a starry night where constellations circle
around the North Star, a month of Moon phases, a year of seasons, and much more.
Fundamental ideas that represent the cyclical nature of astronomy such as rotation, a month, or a
year can be easily demonstrated within a single class period. Concept-based lessons incorporating
discovery/inquiry methods, active participation, and critical thinking in a planetarium allow students
to understand the Earth-based view of the sky in a rapid, memorable, and accurate way. In addition:
• Planetariums can provide a “wow” factor not easily duplicated in a traditional classroom.
• These domed environments represent a shared technology resource that is less costly to
operate and maintain over its life cycle than classrooms or lab rooms using computer
equipment and/tablets.
• The planetarium’s ability to accelerate time, change location locally and remotely, and travel
in time both into the past and into the future provides a powerful and compelling reason to
teach in these environments.
• The delivery of content by planetarium specialists allows other school staff to focus their
attention on additional required curricula and student assessment.
• Planetariums, with their realistic view of the sky and digital extensions, give students
opportunities to learn complex ideas quickly
• The environment of a planetarium provides a family and community gathering place where
children and parents can have shared experiences in the learning process.
• The planetarium can safely show where the planets are in the day sky, even when near the
Sun
Essential Astronomical Understandings for Students
Completing High School
The following concepts were derived from the collective expertise and experience of the
planetarium professionals and associations listed at the end of his document as well as the most upto-date research using the cited resources at the end of this document. These are the broad overview
concepts that led to the more extensive grade level concepts listed in the following section.
I OUR VIEW OF SPACE
1. Some things in the sky are close and some are distant. Although stars and other sky objects
appear attached to a sphere of the same radius, they are at different distances from Earth.
2. Our view of faint celestial objects is hampered when the Sun or the Moon is in the sky, or
when light pollution is present. Our atmosphere limits our ability to see things sharply and
blocks out certain wavelengths of light.
3. Constellation patterns were created by early civilizations and have been used for thousands
of years as navigation and calendar aids.
II THE EARTH IN SPACE
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

1. The Earth rotates, causing celestial objects to appear to move in the sky as time passes.
2. The Earth revolves around the Sun on an inclined axis, causing seasonal changes in the
Sun’s apparent daily path and the amount of energy that a localized region on Earth receives
thus causing temperatures to rise or fall with each season.
3. Our planet Earth has certain characteristics that make life possible.
4. The Solar System, including one average-size star (the Sun) and our planet Earth with its
natural satellite (the Moon), is a group of objects separated from other stars and their planets
by very large distances.
5. Our Solar System is located about half way out from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.
III STARS AND GALAXIES
1. At present our Sun is halfway through its long period of stable life. Our Sun is classified as
a stable star because its size has remained fairly constant and has produced energy at a fairly
constant rate for most of its lifetime.
2. Nuclear fusion within stars produces energy and most of the elements of the universe.
3. Stars begin as rotating gas clouds that start to shine when their interior temperatures become
hot enough for nuclear fusion. After long periods of stable life, stars end their lives in a
manner that is dependent on their mass.
4. Galaxies are collections of billions of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter held together by
gravity. These galaxies sometimes collide or pass near each other. These encounters can
cause episodes of star formation, and even reshape the structure of a galaxy.
5. Scientific evidence shows that our universe was created in the Big Bang about 13.8 billion
years ago. The expansion of the universe causes galaxies (on a cosmic scale) to move apart
from one another. An effect labeled “dark energy” is causing the expansion to occur at an
ever-increasing rate.
IV PROCESSES
1. Astronomers use science and mathematics and apply the scientific methods to observations
made with telescopes, spacecraft, and other tools.
2. Almost everything we know about the universe is derived from analyzing electromagnetic
radiation emitted by distant matter.
Appropriate Astronomical Concepts by Grade Level
The planetarium community considers the following to be the essential set of concepts to be
covered in a K-12 curriculum by grade level. Since there are big differences in cognitive levels
from one grade to the next, especially in young children, the concepts are separated more in the
early grades than in the later grades. Of course, students who are gifted/talented have the ability to
learn concepts of grade levels higher than the indicated chronological age, and students with
learning disabilities may not be able to understand many ideas at the given normative grade level.
The concepts listed for each grade level are appropriate for students with normal thinking/learning
abilities. Each level’s concepts are building blocks for higher levels. Learning progressions, the
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

idea that students learn from previous exposure to basic concepts, are a critical component of the
Next Generation of Science Standards. Each level’s listed concepts should be reviewed in
subsequent years. Teachers should refer to the blocks of lower-level concepts as they teach those
for their own grade level. A concept that seems too difficult or unconnected for the students may be
due to their not learning some previous-block concepts. In such circumstances, the previous-block
concepts should be reviewed.
Concepts Best Covered in a Planetarium
Concepts marked with the planetarium symbol, identifies each concept for which planetarium
observations can provide important help in the learning process. This identification means that
guided planetarium observations can
1) reduce misconceptions by providing an accurate visual-spatial presentation of what is seen
in the real sky
2) provide accurate visual-spatial presentation of what is seen in the real sky
3) make the teaching-learning process more efficient.
The astronomy concepts which are not identified with also may be learned or reviewed in the
planetarium, as they are linked with observations, but planetarium observation is not vital.
It will be noted that the planetarium observations are particularly numerous for the specific concepts
considered appropriate for students in grades K-8. Students in high school also especially will
benefit from planetarium observations related to rotation, lunar phases, and seasons if they have not
been able to form the appropriate astronomy concepts at earlier ages.
Those newer planetariums which have the technology to simulate travel within and beyond the solar
system to view the Earth, other planets, stars, and galaxies from different perspectives offer
motivational learning that can be linked to many concepts appropriate for all grades levels.
Kindergarten
• The Sun, Moon, and stars are far away in space. Clouds, birds, and rain are in the air.
• Clouds often block our view of the Sun, Moon, and stars.
• We live on the surface of the Earth. The Earth has air surrounding it.
The Sun is in our day sky. The Sun and stars are round. The sun and the stars produce
light and other energy.
One should not stare at the Sun because it gives off energy that hurts the eyes.
Hours go by as the Sun moves across the sky. The Sun seems to move from near East to
near West every day.
The Moon cycles through different repeating shapes in our sky. Sometimes you can see
the Moon during the day.
The stars seem to move very slowly during the night.
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

Lights from houses, cars, and streetlights make our night sky lighter, making it harder to
see faint objects like stars.
Stars have different brightness.
Not all stars seem to have the same space between them in the sky.
People imagine patterns in the sky. If one imagines a star pattern, like the Big Dipper,
there are no lines between stars—you imagine them like connecting numbers dot-to-dot.
Grade 1
The Sun makes energy that makes plants grow and life on Earth possible. The Earth gets
its energy from the Sun.
Day and night repeat: This is a time cycle.
Shadows happen when light is blocked by an object. Shadows are long when the Sun is
low.
The Earth is a round ball with air all around it.
Different Moon shapes in our sky give different amounts of light. When the Moon is
bright, it is possible to see more things on the Earth at night, but then it is harder to see
the stars. Historically activities like farming and hunting were done using bright
moonlight.
When the Moon is not in the evening sky, the sky is dark and we can see stars better.
Stars shine in the day sky as well as the night sky, but we don’t see stars in the daytime
because the Sun is too bright.
Long ago people imagined patterns made of stars and told stories about the stars. Today
we still can find the star patterns made up a long time ago. These star patterns are called
constellations.
• There are four seasons which repeat: The seasons are a time cycle.
The Sun’s daily path in the sky is longer and at a higher angle in summer, giving us
more energy. The Sun’s path is shorter and at a lower angle in winter, giving us less
energy.
It gets light earlier in the summer than in the winter. It gets dark later in the summer
than in the winter.
Grade 2 (Here ideas of Rotation and Moon Revolution and what happens daily and monthly in the
sky are covered. Most students will be unable to match Earth-based vs. space-based views for
cause and effect.)
The Sun is a star and like all stars, it is round, not pointed like art-drawn stars.
• Gravity pulls the Earth, the Sun, other stars, and the Moon into round balls.
• The stars we see at night are a lot farther away than the Sun. The Sun is bright because
it is much closer than nighttime stars.
On a clear, dark night we can see about 2500 stars at any given time with the naked eye
(not just a hundred and not millions).
Lights in cities make the sky light, washing out the stars.
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

• With a telescope one can see many faint stars not visible with eyes alone.
• The Earth rotates about an imaginary line between the North Pole and the South Pole,
the axis. Rotation causes day and night. (Learn this as a fact, but true understanding is
difficult at this grade level.) A cycle of day and night takes 24 hours.
On Earth at night, stars near the North Star appear to move in circles around it.
The North Star is not a bright star. The North Star is important because we can use it to
find the north direction. Star patterns (constellations) help us find the North Star. When
you can see the North Star (on a clear night), you can find north. If you can find north,
you can find south, east, and west.
The Moon is a round ball.
The Moon reflects light from the Sun.
Half of the Moon ball always is lighted.
From the Earth people see different amounts of the light and dark halves of the Moon
over the course of time (about a month).
The Moon moves in an orbit around the Earth. Each night/day the Moon seems to have
a slightly different shape in the sky. We call these different shapes, phases. Moon
phases repeat on a regular basis: Moon phases are a time cycle.
Each night/day the Moon is found in a different place in the sky.
• There is no air on the Moon. Without air, there is no weather on the Moon.
• Without air, no plants can grow on the Moon.
• The Moon is the closest space body to the Earth (except meteors).
• Astronauts have walked on the Moon and returned to Earth with Moon rocks. No people
have ever gone further from Earth than the Moon.
• The Earth, Moon, and planets have gravity (Learn as a fact)
• The Earth, Moon, and planets shine in the sky because sunlight bounces or reflects off
them.
Grades 3-4 (the Solar System)
• Planets are round (or almost round) and revolve around the Sun. Planets get their light
from the Sun. We see them because sunlight bounces or reflects off them.
• The Earth is one of eight planets in the Solar System. Pluto is called a dwarf planet.
• Each planet has different characteristics. Some planets have many moons (natural
satellites).
• The Earth has only one Moon (natural satellite), but hundreds of artificial satellites.
Artificial (man-made) satellites revolve (orbit) around the Earth above Earth’s
atmosphere. Some of these help us predict the weather, watch television shows, find our
location, or talk to each other around the world.
• Planets farther from the Sun than Earth get less energy from the Sun and are colder.
Planets closer to the Sun than Earth get more energy from the Sun and are hotter.
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

• The Earth takes one year (365 days) to revolve (orbit) around the Sun. Each planet has a
different revolution time. The farther an object is from the Sun, the longer it takes to
revolve (orbit) around the Sun.
• Each planet has a different rotation time.
To our unaided eyes, we can see 5 planets. They look like stars in the sky. With
telescopes, planets look round, not like the pinpoint stars. We need a telescope just to
see Uranus and Neptune.
• A telescope gathers light and magnifies an object. Many of the best telescope pictures of
the planets and other objects were taken with space telescopes like the Hubble Space
Telescope.
• Spacecraft without people (robot spacecraft) have visited all the other planets. Dwarf
Planet Pluto will be visited by the New Horizons spacecraft, July 2015. No person has
ever visited another planet.
• Sometimes planet pictures are shown with exaggerated colors. This “false color” is
made using technology.
Planets seem to move slowly in our sky through (in front of) the distant background of
stars (constellations) because the planets are orbiting the Sun.
• The Solar System includes the Sun, the planets, dwarf planets, planetary satellites,
Kuiper belt objects, comets, asteroids, meteoroids, gas and dust. Life is found on one
planet, the Earth. Scientists are searching for evidence of life on other worlds of the
Solar System.
• “Shooting stars” (meteors) are meteoroids that collide with Earth and vaporize (burn up)
in the atmosphere.
• Meteorites are rocks from space that have hit the surface of a planet or moon.
Grade 5 (Revisit basic motions, building on earlier learning. Students’ cognitive level now allows
the understanding of more complex concepts. However, matching Earth-based vs. space-based
views more complex than rotation is not possible for most students.)
A good model of the Earth, Moon, and Sun shows the true distances and sizes in space.
Book drawings usually do not show the correct scale either by size or distance. For
example, if the Sun was the size of a planetarium dome, the Earth would be about the
size of a baseball.
As the Earth rotates eastward, sky objects appear to rise near the eastern horizon and set
near the western horizon while stars in the northern sky appear to move
counterclockwise around the North Star, Polaris, on a daily cycle.
Constellations are imaginary patterns of stars made up by early cultures. Constellations
form a background for motions of solar system objects such as planets and the Moon.
The stars that make up the constellations are very far away.
During a month, the Moon seems to move eastward through the zodiac constellations.
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

Zodiac constellations are a group of star patterns centered on the plane of the Earth’s
orbit. Usually we think of 12 zodiac constellations, but the plane also includes a part of
a 13th constellation (Ophiuchus).
As the Earth revolves, the Sun seems to move eastward through the zodiac constellations
on a yearly cycle.
The planets appear to move through the zodiac constellations.
The zodiac constellations, first important in astronomy, were adopted by the superstition
(pseudoscience) of astrology.
Different cultures have used different constellations for hunting, farming, navigation,
and religious ceremonies. This links well with social studies standards.
The Earth’s atmosphere is responsible for many effects, including clouds, rainbows,
aurora, meteors, twinkling stars, and the reddening of the Sun and the Moon when they
are rising and setting.
Changing distance from the Sun is not the reason we have seasons. Seasons happen
because the Earth revolves around the Sun with an inclined (tilted) axis. Learn as a fact.
When the Sun is higher in the sky, the sunlight is more straight-on thus providing more
energy for a given location.
In spring and fall, the Sun rises due east, sets due west, and is in the sky for 12 hours. In
our (Northern Hemisphere) summer the Sun rises north of east, sets north of west, and is
in the sky for more than 12 hours. In our winter the Sun rises south of east, sets south of
west, and is in the sky for less than 12 hours.
In the Southern Hemisphere, seasons are reversed from those in the Northern
Hemisphere.
• The Moon phase cycle is 29 ½ days. Moon phase months do not match calendar
months.
• The Moon phase names are waxing crescent, first quarter, waxing gibbous, full, waning
gibbous, last quarter, waning crescent, and new.
• The Moon and Sun cause the tides. Tides have a daily and monthly set of changes.
• When the Moon is new (i.e. directly between the Sun and Earth), a solar eclipse is
possible. This occurs about once per month. However, the Moon’s orbit is slightly
tilted compared to the Earth’s orbit around the Sun, so the Moon’s shadow does not
always touch the Earth, so a solar eclipse does not usually occur. The New Moon, Sun,
and Earth must be in a straight line and on the same level (plane) for a solar eclipse to
occur. A solar eclipse happens when the Earth moves into the Moon’s shadow.
A total solar eclipse happens when the Moon completely covers the Sun and the Moon’s
shadow falls upon the Earth. The Moon can cover the Sun in our sky even though it is
much smaller than the Sun because it is much closer. In a solar eclipse, the Sun
disappears on its west side first. At no time is it safe to look directly at the Sun when
any of its surface is visible. When the Moon totally covers the Sun, the Sun’s corona
(atmosphere) is visible. When this happens–and only when this happens–it is safe to
look at the Sun.
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

When the Moon is full (i.e. on the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun), a lunar
eclipse is possible. This occurs about once per month. However, the Moon’s orbit is
slightly tilted compared to the Earth’s orbit around the Sun, so the Earth’s shadow does
not always touch the Moon, so a lunar eclipse does not usually occur. The full Moon,
Sun, and Earth must be in a straight line and on the same level (plane) for a lunar eclipse
to occur. A lunar eclipse happens when the Moon moves into Earth’s shadow. In a
lunar eclipse, the full Moon dims on its east side first. When the Moon is totally within
the Earth’s shadow, the Moon often appears red.
• Lunar eclipses last longer than solar eclipses and can be seen from a much larger area of
the Earth’s surface.
Grade 6-8 (At this level, the match of Earth-based view with space-based view of the revolving
Earth or phases seen as the Moon revolves starts to be possible. An important determiner of
whether a student will understand “projective” concepts will be if the concepts listed for previous
levels have been learned.)
Day and night happen because of rotation, but do not prove that the Earth rotates. One
proof of the Earth’s rotation is a Foucault pendulum, which seems to turn during the day.
Seasons are caused by the Earth revolving around the Sun on its inclined (tilted) axis.
The angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth, combined with the number of hours of
daytime, causes changes in the amount of heating observed for a given location. When
the Earth’s Northern Hemisphere is pointed toward the Sun, the Northern Hemisphere
experiences summer. When the Earth’s Northern Hemisphere is pointed away from the
Sun, the Northern Hemisphere experiences winter.
• The Earth’s orbit, while nearly circular, is an ellipse. Earth is closer to the Sun during
the Northern Hemisphere’s winter.
As the Moon revolves around the Earth, the side facing the Sun is light and the side
facing away is dark. As the Moon revolves we see different amounts of its lighted half;
these are called phases.
Only when the Moon is at its full phase does it rise at sunset and set at sunrise.
The waxing crescent, first quarter, waxing gibbous, and full Moon are visible in the
early-evening sky. The full Moon, the waning gibbous, last quarter, and waning crescent
can be seen in the pre-dawn sky.
The Moon rotates so that the same physical side (“the face”) is always facing toward the
Earth. This is the result of the Moon’s rotation period and its revolution period (not the
phase period) both being 27 1/3 days in length.
• Gravity and an object’s motion (momentum or inertia) keep objects in their paths
(orbits). Orbits of most objects are ellipses: planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, moons,
Kuiper Belt objects, and artificial satellites. Some comets move in closed elliptical
orbits; others move in open orbits that do not bring them back to the Sun.
• Normal stars (called main sequence) have no solid or liquid parts.
• The Sun is a medium-sized star.
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

• Many stars are binary (double) or multiple systems.
The color of the star surface indicates its temperature. Blue stars have hotter surfaces
than white, yellow, orange, or red stars. A star remains about the same size and same
color for most of it life, but every star goes through color and size changes as it ages. A
star stays the same size if the pressure of the energy it produces balances its gravity.
• The Sun is about halfway through its stable life. Late in its life the Sun will evolve to
become a red giant star and then a white dwarf star.
• A supernova (called type II supernova) happens when a very massive star reaches the
end of its life (stars much larger than our Sun).
• Very massive stars can explode, leaving dense remnants called neutron stars or black
holes.
• Light travels faster (about 300,000 m/s) than anything else. Light waves travel through
empty space, air, and transparent objects. We relate distances of sky objects to the time
it takes their light to reach us. The Sun is 8 light-minutes away. The nearest night star
is over 4 light-years away.
• The Sun is one of billions of stars in our Milky Way Galaxy, a large spiral of stars and
gas.
When we look in a dark sky (no Moon or light pollution), the Milky Way appears as a
faint band of light. The Milky Way we see on a dark night consists of the combined
glow of very distant stars.
When seeing the Milky Way in the night sky, you are viewing spiral arm(s) of our
Galaxy.
The Solar System is not at the center of the Milky Way; it is on one side, about half way
out.
The Milky Way is one of many billions of galaxies in the universe.
It takes light millions of years to travel from the closest large Galaxy to our Solar
System in the Milky Way.
Planets have been discovered around many stars beyond the sun.
Many stars are believed to have planets, but planets with temperatures and conditions
favorable for life appear to be rare.
Although ongoing surveys search for life, no life elsewhere in space has been confirmed,
either in our Solar System or on planets around other stars.
In space, astronauts must be provided with oxygen to breathe, air pressure to balance
outward body pressure, and protection from solar radiation (includes harmful radiation
and temperature regulation).
The amount of gravity that an object has is determined by its mass. The Earth, Moon,
planets, stars, and galaxies all have gravity. Mass and distance determine how much
gravitational force is exerted.
The Moon is the only space body visited by people thus far.
There are objects in the night sky you cannot see like galaxies, nebulae, or star clusters
without telescopes.
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

Grades 9-12 Since high school learning usually is arranged by separate courses, appropriate
courses in which each concept can be taught, in addition to an astronomy course, are indicated by
the following code: Physical Science, PS; Physics, P; Chemistry, C; Biology, B; Earth Science,
ES; Geology, Geol; Geometry, Geom; Mathematics (general), M; Social Studies, SS.
• Theories use math to help us understand the universe. PS, P, C, B, ES, Geol, Geom, M,
and SS
• The Earth’s diameter was calculated over 2000 years ago using Sun/shadow
observations and geometry. PS, Geom, ES, Geol
• The widespread knowledge that Earth is a rotating, revolving planet is less than 500
years old. PS, P, ES, SS
• Telescopes had a large role in changing the idea of Earth’s place from the center of the
universe to a planet revolving about the Sun in a galaxy that occupies no special location
in a universe of billions of galaxies. PS, P, ES, SS
• Newton’s Laws of Motion operate throughout the universe. PS, P, ES
• Our understanding of the universe is based upon scientific principles and natural
properties that describe how nature works on Earth and we assume throughout the rest of
the universe. Observations and predictions confirm this assumption. PS, P, ES
• In very special situations of high mass or high speed, Newton’s Laws are modified, and
Einstein’s Relativity applies. PS, P, ES, M
• The orbits and trajectories of space objects all follow paths that are defined by
mathematical formulas. Geom, PS, P, ES, M
• Microgravity or a sensation of weightlessness is a result of constant falling (freefall).
PS, P, ES
• Evidence shows that the Sun and Earth are over 4.5 billion years old. PS, P, ES, C, B,
Geol, M
• We know the age of the Solar System by using radioactivity to determine the age of
meteorites. PS, P, ES, C, Geol
• Electromagnetic radiation consists of many types of waves, some of which we see
(visible light) and most of which we do not see. PS, P, ES, C
• The shortest electromagnetic waves have the most energy. PS, P, ES, C
• Electromagnetic waves provide most of the information we know about the universe.
PS, P, ES, C
• All electromagnetic waves travel through a vacuum at the speed of light. PS, P, ES, C
• The Earth’s atmosphere blocks most types of electromagnetic waves. PS, P, ES, C,
Geol
• Ultraviolet energy from the Sun causes sunburn. PS, P, ES, C, B
• Telescopes in orbit above the atmosphere detect electromagnetic waves that do not reach
the surface of the Earth. PS, P, ES
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

• Magnitude is a nonlinear system of numbers describing brightness of sky objects. PS, P,
ES, M
• Evidence shows that the Solar System formed from a rotating cloud of gas and dust. PS,
P, ES, Geol
• Astronomers determine the composition of objects in space by analyzing their spectra.
PS, P, ES, C
• The elements found on Earth are the same elements found elsewhere in the universe.
PS, P, ES, C
• The universe is made up mostly of Dark Energy and Dark Matter. Dark Energy makes
up about 68%, Dark Matter makes up about 27%, and the normal matter we are familiar
with makes up about 5% of the known universe. PS, P, ES, C
• Of this 5% normal matter that makes up the universe, most of it is made up of the
element hydrogen. Hydrogen and helium account for nearly 99% (of that 5%) of the
composition of the universe. PS, P, ES, C
• The matter of stars, including our Sun, is in the plasma state. PS, P, ES, C
• The Sun and other stars produce energy by nuclear reactions (fusion) and create heavier
atoms or isotopes. PS, P, ES, C
• As stars age, they produce elements and isotopes with higher atomic numbers. PS, P,
ES, C
• Elements heavier than iron such as uranium and other radioactive elements are formed
only in specialized environments such as supernovae. PS, P, ES, C
• The matter of the Earth and living things includes elements that formed in supernovae or
in the cores of giant stars. Scientists conclude that supernovae explosions, planetary
nebula explosions, and stellar winds distributed heavier elements into gaseous clouds or
nebulae that eventually collapsed due to gravity to form new stars, including the Sun and
its planets. We are made of “star stuff.” PS, P, ES, C, Geol
• The Earth’s atmosphere and oceans and other planets’ fluid parts are influenced by
radiation and convection. PS, P, ES, Geol
• Coal and oil resources have potential energy that came from sunlight. PS, P, ES, Geol,
C
• Evidence shows the universe was formed in the Big Bang event. PS, P, ES, Geol
• The universe is expanding, causing most galaxies to move away from each other. PS, P,
ES
• Evidence shows that the Big Bang occurred about 13.7 billion years ago. PS, P, ES, M
• Only the normal matter in the universe that we can detect emits electromagnetic waves
PS, P, ES, C, Geol
• An effect called “dark energy” causes the expansion of the universe to occur at an everincreasing rate. PS, P, ES
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

Who constructed this document?
The professional planetarium community in the United States is composed of seven independent
regional associations. Membership within these associations consists of K-12 teachers, science
supervisors, college professors, support staff, informal museum science educators, and private
planetarium owners/educators from all across the United States.
The seven independent planetarium regional associations have united to speak with a single voice
through this document. Members of this united group agree that this document describes what
every student should know to be astronomically literate. The planetarium community concludes
that students require astronomical literacy to function and adapt well in an ever-changing
technological world.
This document was written by the following individuals who have comprehensive backgrounds and
experience at all levels of the educational spectrum.
• Dr. Jeanne Bishop, Planetarium Director (Licensed Teacher serving K-12 students),
Westlake Public Schools, Westlake, Ohio
• David DeRemer, K-12 Licensed Teacher & Planetarium Director, School District of
Waukesha, Waukesha, Wisconsin, Great Lakes Planetarium Association Education
Chair
• David Leake, Associate Professor & Planetarium Director, Parkland College,
Champaign, Illinois
• Gary Sampson, Licensed High School Astronomy and Earth Science Teacher &
Planetarium Director (retired), Wauwatosa School District, Wauwatosa, Wisconsin
• Gary Tomlinson, Informal Museum Science & Planetarium Licensed Teacher (retired),
Public Museum of Grand Rapids, Grand Rapids, Michigan
Additional material, reviews and comments were provided by:
• Jim Beaber, Planetarium and Observatory Director (retired) Ft. Lupton School District &
Jefferson County School District, Colorado. Adjunct Astronomy Instructor Arapahoe
Community College, Littleton, Colorado
• Bob Bonadurer, Planetarium Director, Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee
Wisconsin
• Jack Dunn, Planetarium Coordinator & Licensed Teacher, Mueller Planetarium,
University of Nebraska State Museum, Lincoln, Nebraska
• Jon Elvert, Planetarium Director, Pennington Planetarium at the Louisiana Art &
Science Museum, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
• Rick Greenawald, Planetarium Manager, Faulkner Planetarium, Twin Falls, Idaho
• Lee Ann Hennig, Planetarium and Licensed Teacher, Thomas Jefferson High School for
Science and Technology, Alexandria, Virginia
• Dr. David Hurd, Professor of Geosciences, Edinboro University of Pennsylvania,
Edinboro, Pennsylvania
• Dr. Ronald Kaitchuck, Professor and Planetarium Director, Ball State University,
Muncie, Indiana
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

• Mitch Luman, Science Center and Planetarium Director, Evansville Museum,
Evansville, Indiana
• Michael Marks, President and Chief Astronomer, The Sky Connection, Dedham,
Massachusetts
• Benjamin Mendelsohn, Director, West Valley College Planetarium, Saratoga, California
• Steve Mitch, Planetarium Director (retired) and Licensed Teacher, Oglebay Resort,
Wheeling, West Virginia
• Jack Northrup, Planetarium Director, Astronomy Instructor & Licensed Teacher, Omaha
Public Schools, Omaha, Nebraska
• Mark Reed, Planetarium Director and Licensed Science Teacher (Astronomy, Earth, and
General Science), Jackson Public Schools, Jackson, Michigan
• Dr. Dale Smith, Professor and Planetarium Director, Bowling Green State University,
Bowling Green, Ohio
• Cory Stone, Planetarium Director, The Gene Roddenberry Planetarium, El Paso, Texas
• John Scala, Planetarium Director & Licensed Science Teacher, Lenape Valley Regional
High School, Stanhope, New Jersey, Middle Atlantic Planetarium Society Education
Chair
• Kim Small, Planetarium Director (serving grades K – 12), Upper Dublin School District,
Upper Dublin, Pennsylvania
• Keith Turner, Planetarium Director and Licensed Science Teacher (Astronomy, Earth
and Space Science, General Science, and Physical Science), Carmel Clay Schools,
Carmel, Indiana; Adjunct Astronomy Instructor Indiana University Purdue University
and Indiana University Kokomo
This document is endorsed by the:
• Great Lakes Planetarium Association
• Great Plains Planetarium Association
• Middle Atlantic Planetarium Society
• Pacific Planetarium Association
• Rocky Mountain Planetarium Association
• Southeastern Planetarium Association
• Southwestern Association of Planetariums
References:
 “A Rationale For the Implementation of a Maximum Impact School Planetarium Facility,”
Mark S. Sonntag, Planetarian, Summer 1979, pp. 3-10
 “A Study of Kindergarten Students in the Planetarium,” Paul T. Davis, Planetarian, Winter
1978, pp. 3-6
 “An Examination of Misconceptions in an Astronomy Course for Science, Mathematics, and
Engineering Majors,” Zeilik, M., and Morris, V. Astronomy Education Review, 2003, Vol. 2,
p. 101
 Astronomy Education: Current Development, Future Coordination, Astronomical Society of
the Pacific, 1996
Astronomy Literacy: Essential Concepts for a K-12 Curriculum

 “Astronomy Learning and Student Thinking,” Jeanne E. Bishop, Mercury, March-April
1996, pp. 16-18
 Benchmarks for Science Literacy, American Association for the Advancement of Science,
1993
 “Conceptual Change in Introductory-Level Astronomy Courses: Tracking Misconceptions
to Reveal Which–And How Much–Concepts Change,” Zeilik, M., and Bisard, W. Journal
of College Science Teaching, 2000, Vo. 29, p. 229
 The Development and Testing of a Participatory Planetarium Unit Emphasizing Projective
Astronomy Concepts and utilizing the (Karplus) Learning Cycle, Student Model
Manipulation, and Student Drawing with Eighth Grade Students. Ph.D. dissertation, Jeanne
E. Bishop, University of Akron, Ohio, 1980
 “Focus on Education: Children’s Ideas of Space,” Jeanne E. Bishop, Planetarian, Spring
1980, pp. 24-27
 “Grade Appropriate Concepts”, Gary Tomlinson, Planetarian, March 1997
 More Universe at Your Fingertips, Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 2000
 National Science Education Standards, National Research Council, 1996
 Planetarium Activities for Student Success Vol. 1: Planetarium Educators Workshop Guide
2nd. ed., Alan J. Friedman, et. al. 1990
 “Planetarium Methods Based on the Research of Jean Piaget,” Jeanne E. Bishop,
Planetarian, September 1976, pp. 3-8
 “Psychometric Models of Student Conceptions in Science: Reconciling Qualitative Studies
and Distractor-Driven Assessment Instruments,” Sadler, P. M., Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 998, Vol 35, p. 265
 Science For All Americans, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1989
 The Teaching of Astronomy, Jay M. Pasachoff & John R. Percy, Cambridge University Press
 The Universe at Your Fingertips, Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 1995

Thanks

Team Bluestar